The second N exists only thanks to the first: 'there is no B without A'. Marks an indispensable precondition; slightly formal, common in set phrases and speeches.

Says the outcome depends entirely on N. Stiff, written or formal-spoken register, common in notices and business talk.

Means the result holds regardless of N. Very formal written style; typical of rules, contracts and official announcements.

Sets X aside as a possible exception and asserts something different about the main case. Formal, slightly literary; often mildly critical.

Denies a sweeping judgment: you can't say it applies across the board. Neutral to formal; common in discussion and writing.

Expresses an emotion at its peak, e.g. 光栄の至り. Very formal, set-phrase-like; used in speeches and greetings.

States that something has reached an extreme limit. Formal and written; used with both positive and negative nouns.

With 見る/聞く it means too painful to watch or listen to; with emotion nouns it means overflowing with that feeling. Formal, written.

Says the result is the same whether or not the action happens. Formal-ish, emphatic; common in written and assertive speech.

Means you want to do it but circumstances make it impossible. Neutral register; the second verb must be a potential negative.

Introduces an unlikely or ill-advised action and warns of a serious consequence. Emphatic, somewhat literary.

Doing B while also serving purpose A, typically a visit or letter. Very formal, mostly written correspondence and business greetings.

Describes a secondary long-term activity carried on alongside one's main occupation. Formal, written register.

Doing B while taking the chance offered by A; the two happen at once. Slightly formal but used in everyday speech about outings.

The second action follows the first almost instantly. Written, narrative register; used for past, surprising events.

Once the action happens, a bad or unstoppable result inevitably follows. Emphatic; 〜たら最後 is the more colloquial variant.

States that the speaker feels an emotion to the utmost degree. Formal-ish written or careful speech; only with emotion adjectives.

Points out an undesirable tendency someone or something has. Formal, mildly critical; common in analysis and commentary.

Says a quality is at its absolute extreme, almost always a negative one. Formal, written; attaches to na-adjective stems.

A literary equivalent of ようだ/ように, meaning 'like' or 'as if'. Also used after a person noun for self-deprecation or contempt.

Gives a reason, usually while apologizing or asking indulgence. Old-fashioned and very formal; letters and polite speech.

Means 'without doing A, B is impossible' or 'B happens without A'. Formal, written register.

Reports that a bad situation ended up even worse than expected. Critical, exasperated tone; written and spoken narrative.

Says something is entirely made up of one thing or colour. Neutral register; used with a limited set of nouns.

Says something one intended to do never got done, with a note of regret. Slightly literary but used in everyday speech too.

An emphatic 'even', citing an extreme case to imply the rest. Literary and formal; さえ is the everyday equivalent.

Says that as soon as A is done, B undoes it, again and again. Used for repeated, often frustrating situations.

Means 'only this and nothing else', limiting the case strongly. Formal and written; often paired with である or だ.

A literary 'even': stresses that even the minimum case (even imagining it, even a twitch) produces the result. Mostly fixed phrases like 想像するだに and 微動だにしない; written and formal.

Attaches to 'one + counter' and combines with a negative to mean 'not even one'. Emphatic and formal, common in rules, speeches and written notices.

Formal written equivalent of である: 'someone in the position of X'. Used to state the duties or conduct expected of that role, often with should/must.

Pairs two opposite or paired verbs to show two actions repeating alternately. A literary, set-phrase pattern: 行きつ戻りつ, 抜きつ抜かれつ, 押しつ押されつ.

'No matter what/who it is' — concedes any case, often after a question word or たとえ. Formal, common in written rules and speeches.

Lists two (or more) contrasting nouns to say 'whether A or B, the same applies'. Formal and written; the second clause states what holds in every case.

'Ever since X, things have been different' — marks a turning point after which a lasting change continues. More emphatic and slightly formal than 〜てから.

A rhetorical question: 'if this isn't X, what is?' The speaker asserts strongly that it can only be X. Emotional and literary, used in essays and commentary.

Says a situation is more than the speaker can put up with. Complaining tone, used in spoken and casual written Japanese; often with こう or 毎日 to stress repetition.

Expresses a feeling the speaker holds sincerely and without end. Used only with emotion verbs (願う, 祈る, 愛する, 期待する); formal written or ceremonial speech.

'Combined with X' — two factors work together to produce a stronger effect, usually a good or notable one. Formal written style, common in news and reports.

Gives a special, unusual circumstance as the reason for a resulting scene. The result is an observed fact, not the speaker's own action; typical of news writing.

'If it is for X / if it is a case of X, then (I will go that far)'. Marks a special condition that justifies unusual effort. Formal, somewhat literary.

Picks out two representative points and evaluates the whole: 'both A and B (are like this)'. Carries the speaker's judgment, praise or criticism; formal-ish but usable in speech.

Literary 'even though / even X': admits a strong case and then denies the expected conclusion. Formal written style, common in editorials and speeches.

'Indescribably, extremely' — the degree is beyond words, usually of a negative feeling. といったらありはしない (spoken: ありゃしない) is stronger and more emotional.

Raises a familiar person or thing as a topic in order to complain about it. Conversational and blunt; the following clause is critical or exasperated.

'Although it is a time when...' — acknowledges the listener's inconvenient situation before thanking or apologizing. Set polite phrase in business and formal speech.

'Even supposing X / even from X's standpoint, the result won't change'. Concessive and formal; the second clause is usually negative or pessimistic.

'Even so / although that is true' — accepts the first fact, then states something that goes against what you would expect from it. Slightly formal, usable in writing and speech.

'As if to say X' — describes an attitude or action so clear it is almost spoken. The words are not actually said; written and descriptive style.

'Once you reach the stage of X, naturally...' — a high level, age or occasion brings consequences that don't apply at lower levels. Formal, common in commentary.

'I thought X, but in fact...' — the speaker's expectation is overturned, often with surprise. Literary and somewhat playful; used in writing and lively speech.

States that something will inevitably be caused, or that the speaker is determined not to let the matter rest. Strong and formal; ずには is the more literary form.

'Even if not as far as X, at least Y' — sets a high level, denies it, then names a lower but acceptable level. Formal-neutral, common in advice and reports.

A double negative: 'it's not that I couldn't / it may be possible under the right conditions'. Cautious and indirect, typical of careful adult conversation.

Shows a state that stays unchanged while something happens: 'in that state, just as it is'. Mostly fixed expressions (涙ながらに, 昔ながらの, 生まれながらの); literary.

'Without X, (Y is impossible)' — states an indispensable condition, always followed by a negative or impossibility. Formal written style, common in speeches and slogans.

Means 'without doing X'. With には it stresses that the result would be impossible otherwise. Stiff, written/formal register; the spoken equivalent is 〜ないで／〜ずに.

Marks something that only this person, place or thing could produce — a compliment, not a neutral statement. Common in reviews, ads and travel writing.

'The moment someone did A, they did B' — the same person, and B is sudden or unexpected. Written/narrative register; the second clause is normally past tense and never a command or intention.

Offers two example options and implies others are fine too: 'do A or B, whichever'. Used in advice or instructions to someone of equal or lower status, so avoid it with superiors.

'Being in (a special situation or position)'. Sets up a circumstance that explains what follows; with も it means 'even in'. Formal written style, common in news and speeches.

〜に至る means a process finally reaches some result or place; 〜に至るまで means 'all the way down to / even including'. Formal written style, typical of reports and news.

Picks out the most extreme example from a bad situation: 'and as for X, it's even worse'. Always carries a negative or critical evaluation. Formal, mainly written.

'Has a serious bearing on X' — used when something important such as life, reputation or trust is at stake. Fixed with weighty nouns; formal, common in news and business.

'It is not hard to imagine/guess'. Used almost only with 想像する, 察する and 理解する. Very formal written Japanese, typical of essays, editorials and condolences.

Two uses: after a number or stage it means 'only at / not until'; after a noun it links two qualities, 'both A and B'. Literary and formal, rare in casual speech.

'In line with' facts, rules, reality or precedent — you take the standard as it is and act accordingly. Formal written register, common in law, policy and business documents.

'Worthy of / good enough to' — states that something has sufficient value to deserve the action. Stiff literary style; the negative 〜に足りない means 'not worth it'.

'Not stopping at X, but extending further'. Shows that the scope of something spreads beyond the first, narrower range. Formal written style, very common in news reports.

After a verb it politely declines: 'there is no need to'. After a noun it means 'is no match for'. Polite and formal; the verb use often appears as 〜には及びません.

'There's no need to / it isn't worth' reacting that way — used to calm down an over-reaction such as surprise, anger or blame. Formal; pairs with 驚く, 責める, 落ち込む, 感心する.

Sets two things side by side to stress how opposite they are, usually praising one and criticizing the other. Carries the speaker's subjective judgment; formal, mostly written.

'Even more than X' — X was already high, and now it exceeds that. Often with 例年, 以前, 何 and question words. Formal written style, also used in set greetings.

Casual spoken exaggeration: 'it was unbelievably ...'. Repeats the adjective or verb to stress an extreme degree. Very colloquial — never use it in writing or formal speech.

'Not to mention X — even Y'. A is the obvious case and B, the easier or smaller thing, is also impossible or true. Formal written style; the second clause usually takes も and a negative.

'Precisely because' — emphatically gives the one real reason, usually a positive or well-meant one. Literary and formal; the sentence typically ends in のだ／のです.

'Leaving X aside for now' — you set a side issue apart and move to the main point. Neutral to formal; frequent in meetings, presentations and articles.

'If that happens, everything is over and nothing can be done'. Warns that one event would make all prior effort meaningless. Formal-ish spoken and written; 〜ばそれまでのことだ is the fuller form.

'Just before' a moment that is about to arrive, often with a sense of rush or bad timing. Attaches to nouns or dictionary-form verbs; neutral register, common at work.

Classical negative 'must not / ought never to', used to condemn behavior unworthy of a role. Almost always in the set phrase N + にあるまじき + noun. Very formal written style.

With V-dict it means 'I'll simply do X, that's all' — a calm fallback plan. With V-ta it means 'I merely did X, nothing more'. Formal, slightly stiff spoken and written.

'Covered all over in' an unpleasant substance such as mud, blood, dust or sweat; also figuratively 借金まみれ. Always negative. Neutral register, common in speech and writing.

Turns a noun into a verb meaning 'take on the air of / show signs of X'. Mostly seen as 〜めいた or 〜めいて; a literary, slightly poetic word used for seasons and tones of speech.

'A is certainly true, but B is even more so' — you admit the first point and then put greater weight on the second. Formal written style, common in reviews and speeches.

Expresses regret or reproach: something good could easily have happened, but it didn't. Often follows a conditional and trails off. Written or emotional spoken register.

States a strong, deliberate purpose: 'in order to'. Stiff, literary or formal-written register; not used in casual speech.

Formal, written 'because of / owing to'. Same meaning as から/ので but restricted to essays, notices and speeches.

'There is no one/nothing other than X'. Used with a negative to single out the only suitable option; formal, praising tone.

Marks a time as the final point: 'as of / with today, this month…, it ends'. Formal, common in announcements.

'Starting with X', where X is the first of a series that then expands or spreads. Written and news register.

'I cannot help feeling…' — a spontaneous emotion the speaker cannot hold back. Stiff written register; only with emotion nouns.

'Taking X as an opportunity', where X is a turning point that prompts a positive change or new start. Slightly formal.

Marks a point in time as a dividing line: before and after it, the situation clearly changes. Neutral-to-formal, often written.

'On the basis of / taking X into account', where X is data, opinions or past experience used as a foundation for a decision. Business and academic register.

Formal 'by means of' (method) or 'as of' (a set time at which something takes effect or ends). Typical of notices and ceremonies.

'Undaunted by X' — someone faces a hardship or obstacle without letting it stop them. Written, admiring tone; not used about oneself.

'Be forced to do X' by circumstances beyond one's control, with a sense of regret. Formal written and news register.

'Paying no attention to X', where X is others' worry, opposition or expectation. Critical or detached tone; written register.

'As if about to do X' — describes an appearance or manner that stops just short of the action. Literary; used to describe others.

'You can't get away without doing X' — social pressure or circumstances make the action unavoidable. Formal written equivalent of 〜ないでは済まない.

Double negative meaning 'it's not that I don't…' — grudging or partial admission. Neutral spoken and written; softens the speaker's stance.

Double negative 'not entirely un-…': the speaker admits a slight degree of feeling or willingness, with reservation. Slightly formal.

'Nothing beats X / it's best if X' — states a commonsense preference, often as friendly advice. Common in both speech and writing.

'Is worth doing / can bear' — the thing has enough quality to be worth reading, watching or appreciating. Formal written; the negative 〜に堪えない is more common.

'Since I'm in front of / have said X, I can't back out' — social face obliges the speaker to act a certain way. Spoken and written, slightly formal.

'Even if you do X, it won't help' — a hypothetical whose result is useless or negative. Always followed by a negative or futile outcome; slightly formal.

Formal, written 'in order to'. Same as ために but restricted to reports, news and stiff speech; the following clause states a deliberate action.

'There is no way one could X' — the action is impossible from the outset, given one's position or circumstances. Literary; used with verbs like 知る, 望む, 比べる.

'It is thought / believed that…' — an impersonal, cautious conclusion based on evidence. Standard in news reports and official documents.

Literary adverb meaning 'above all, especially': singles out one item as outstanding within a group already mentioned. Written register only.

Formal 'no matter how…': concedes an extreme degree yet the result still holds. Written or formal-speech version of どんなに〜ても.

Emphatic 'not … in the least / no … whatsoever'. The adverb なんら strengthens a following negative; formal written and official register.

With a negative, とても means "cannot possibly." It stresses that something is completely beyond one's ability or belief. Neutral register, common in both speech and writing.

"Never again" — a firm statement that something will not happen or be done a second time. Used in both speech and writing, often with resolve, regret or warning.

Stiff written-style adverb meaning "not at all, not in the least." Used only with negatives and almost always about knowing or understanding, as in 皆目見当がつかない.

"None whatsoever." 一切 with a negative denies something completely. Formal and emphatic, typical of notices, rules and official statements.

"Hardly, not properly." Says that something is not done adequately or enough. Conversational, and it usually carries complaint or reproach.

Very formal written pattern meaning "not merely X, but also." Here ひとり means "only"; editorials and speeches use it to widen the scope of an issue.

Double negative meaning "there's no guarantee it won't happen." Warns about a low but real possibility. Somewhat formal; common in cautious advice and writing.

"Not necessarily, not always the case." Denies that a general assumption always holds. Slightly formal; used in argument and careful speech.

Formal written equivalent of 〜かどうか, "whether or not." Found in reports, legal texts and news writing; too stiff for casual conversation.

"X is one thing, but ..." Contrasts a barely tolerable case with something clearly unacceptable that follows. Slightly formal and usually complaining.

"If it were X that would be one thing, but ..." Raises an excusable hypothetical, then criticizes the real situation. Slightly formal, dissatisfied tone.

Expresses a strong wish: "Isn't there some way to ...?" Mixes frustration with hope. Slightly literary; often appears with the potential form.

"Is nothing more than X." Dismisses something as having no greater value or meaning. Used in writing and considered speech, usually critically.

Emphatic written phrase: "is nothing other than X." Labels something decisively, usually with an evaluative or critical noun.

"It's only natural that ..." Shows sympathy with someone's reaction, especially anger or complaint. Neutral to slightly formal.

"At least it's better than the worst case." Accepts a bad situation by pointing to one saving grace. Conversational, with a resigned tone.

"Rather than do X, I'd sooner do Y." X is presented as the option the speaker finds unbearable. Common in speech and writing alike.

"X is about the only one; that's about all there is." Limits the scope to one small case, often with mild resignation. Used in speech and writing.

"Going so far as to do X." Marks an extreme, often excessive means taken to reach a goal, usually with criticism or surprise. 〜までして follows a noun.

"There's no end to it once you start." Says that listing, wanting or fixing something could go on forever. Neutral; frequent in explanations.

Added to a verb stem, it means "left in that state" or "kept doing without a break." Often criticizes neglect; colloquial in tone.

Formal written pattern: "it may well do X, but certainly not Y." Affirms one thing emphatically while denying the opposite in the following clause.

Literary "even just, at least." Attached to small quantities to ask for or offer a minimum. Old-fashioned; appears in formal letters and set phrases.

Emphasizes a large quantity: "as much as, no less than." 〜からある is used for size, weight or length, 〜からする for price. Written or formal speech.

"When it comes to X." Singles out a topic in order to criticize it or explain a consequence. Colloquial and emphatic; 〜ときたら is the same.

"Whether to do X or not." Expresses wavering between doing something and not doing it. Slightly formal; common in narration and considered speech.

"After an interval of X." States how long it has been since something last happened. Neutral and very common in conversation and news.

A suffix meaning "the whole of, involving everyone in" — 家族ぐるみ, 町ぐるみ, 会社ぐるみ. Neutral, though 組織ぐるみ usually implies collective wrongdoing.

Attaches to a noun to say something takes on the air or appearance of it. 〜びる is fairly neutral (大人びる); 〜じみる is usually negative (子供じみる, 芝居じみる). Mostly written/formal.

Means 'in the same state as X, unchanged', used to modify a noun. Attaches to a limited set of words (昔, 生まれ, いつも, 涙). Formal and somewhat literary.

Marks the preceding fact as surprising or hard to believe. Often followed by 驚きだ／情けない, or left unfinished for effect. Emphatic, written or careful spoken style.

States flatly that the thing named does not exist anywhere. Used for sweeping general truths; formal, common in essays and lectures.

Says an action is too trivial to be worth going that far. A stronger, more formal variant of 〜までもない, common in business speech and writing.

Expresses that one cannot bear to do something because it is too painful or feels wrong. Literary and formal; pairs with verbs like 見る, 聞く, 捨てる.

Means to match or satisfy a standard, condition or expectation. Fixed collocations include 理にかなう, 条件にかなう, お眼鏡にかなう. Formal, mostly written.

Means 'on the occasion of / facing' an important event such as a ceremony, match or negotiation. Formal written style, typical of speeches and news.

Picks up a topic and leads into a statement about how extreme it is. Strongly literary and emphatic; found in essays, reviews and dramatic narration.

Means 'on the occasion of / when the chance arises'. Polite and formal, common in letters and business speech; not used for everyday trivial events.

Means 'in connection with / dedicated to' an event or anniversary, typically introducing a written piece or gesture offered for that occasion. Formal written style.

With 一 plus a counter, emphasizes 'not even one'. Complete negation; formal, common in reports and written accounts.

A literary equivalent of 〜ないで／〜なくて, meaning 'without doing'. Appears in proverbs, formal writing and set phrases such as 戦わずして勝つ.

Means 'even in X's case / even from X's standpoint', leading to a negative conclusion. Formal, mainly written; a stiffer version of 〜にしても.

Sets a topic aside for now so that something else can be dealt with first. Neutral to formal; frequent in meetings and business writing.

Means 'unless it is X, ... not': only X can do or produce the result. Followed by a negative; formal to neutral, used in speech and writing alike.

With a potential verb, expresses a wish for something the speaker knows is hard or impossible to realize. Emotional; common in both speech and writing.

Means 'after passing through' a period, process or stage before reaching the next state. Formal written style, typical of news and reports.

Means 'every time / whenever', with the second clause showing a feeling or thought that arises naturally. Attaches to perception verbs; slightly literary.

Gives an approximate figure or level, implying 'at most, no more than that'. Neutral to slightly formal; common in reports and conversation about numbers.

Singles out a field of skill and praises someone as best in it. The second clause is always positive. Neutral to formal; used in speech and writing.

States that no option remains but this one, often with reluctance. A formal equivalent of 〜しかない; common in writing and careful speech.

Means the action is unnecessary because the matter is obvious or minor. Often in the set phrase 言うまでもなく. Formal, mainly written.

Pairs two opposite words to mean 'in either case, whether A or B'. The second clause states something that always holds. Literary and set-phrase-like.

Used to state where a cause, aim or responsibility lies. Takes an abstract noun as subject (原因・目的・責任は〜にある). Formal written style.