Grammar (JLPT N2)

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〜に際して Formal written or ceremonial phrasing meaning "on the occasion of / when doing." Marks a special, one-off moment such as a signing, departure or opening, not a routine event.
〜に当たって Formal "upon / at the time of" for an important undertaking one is about to begin. Used in speeches and business writing; the main clause states what is done in preparation or in that spirit.
〜に先立って Formal written "prior to," used when something is done in advance of a major event as a preliminary step. More restricted than 前に: the following event must be significant.
〜において / 〜における Formal written replacement for で, marking a place, time, or field/domain. Common in reports, notices and academic writing; における modifies a following noun.
〜にわたって / 〜にわたる Formal expression for extent: something continues or spreads over a whole span of time, distance or range. The noun before it must express that span. にわたる modifies a noun.
〜をめぐって "Concerning / surrounding," used for a topic that people argue, debate or compete over. Typical of news and formal writing; the main clause usually involves conflict or discussion.
〜をはじめ Names the most representative member of a group first, implying many others follow. Formal written style, common in reports and announcements.
〜を通じて / 〜を通して Marks a medium or intermediary ("via, through"), or a period during the whole of which something holds. を通して leans slightly more toward active use of the means; both are fairly formal.
〜を中心に "Centering on / mainly," showing what stands at the core of an activity, spread or arrangement. Neutral-to-formal; common in news and business explanations.
〜を問わず "Regardless of," saying that a difference in the named category makes no difference. Formal written style; typical in job ads, notices and rules.
〜を抜きにして "Leaving aside / without," removing something normally expected. With 〜を抜きにしては／抜きでは plus a negative it means "without X, Y would not happen." Neutral to slightly formal.
〜をこめて "Putting (a feeling) into," used with emotion nouns such as 心, 感謝, 愛, 祈り. Slightly literary but common in letters, songs and everyday warm speech.
〜をもとに "Based on," naming the source material used to make something. Softer and broader than に基づいて: the material is raw input, not a rule to obey.
〜に基づいて "Based on / in accordance with," where the noun is a standard, rule, fact or data set that the action conforms to. Formal, common in legal, business and academic contexts.
〜に応じて "Depending on / in response to," where one thing varies flexibly as another varies. Formal; frequent in business and service language.
〜に沿って Literally "along" a line such as a river or road, and figuratively "in line with" a policy, plan or someone's wishes. Fairly formal, common in business.
〜に伴って "Along with / as a result of," for a change or event that brings another change with it. Formal written style, common in news and reports.
〜につれて "As … progresses," for two changes that advance gradually and in proportion. Neutral register, used in both speech and writing; not used for one-off events or intentional actions.
〜にしたがって Two uses: proportional change ("as … does"), like につれて but stiffer, and "in accordance with" instructions, rules or a manual. Formal in both senses.
〜とともに "Together with," "at the same time as," or "as … changes." A formal written alternative to 〜と一緒に that also links two simultaneous states or parallel changes.
〜次第 "As soon as," attached to a verb stem. Business and formal speech; the second clause must be future (a report, request or intention) and cannot be in the past tense.
〜次第だ / 〜次第で "Depends on": the outcome is decided by the noun before 次第. 次第だ ends the sentence, 次第で／次第では continues it. Neutral to formal.
〜上で "After doing X, then Y," where X is a deliberate preliminary step whose result shapes Y. Formal, common in business and official notices; not for accidental sequences.
〜上に "On top of that," adding a second point in the same direction — two good things or two bad things, never a mix. Slightly formal but common in everyday explanation.
〜以上は "Now that / since," presenting a fact from which an obligation, determination or judgment naturally follows. Formal; the main clause carries なければならない, べきだ, つもりだ and the like.
〜からには "Now that / if I'm going to," almost the same as 以上は but warmer and more emotional, expressing the speaker's resolve. Used in both speech and writing.
〜限り Marks a limit: "as long as" a condition holds, or "to the full extent of" something. Neutral to formal; found in fixed phrases like できる限り and 見渡す限り.
〜限りでは "As far as I know / from what I saw," limiting a statement to the speaker's own source of information. Attaches to verbs of perceiving or checking; neutral and common in careful speech.
〜ないかぎり "Unless," stating that as long as the condition is not met, the situation will not change. The main clause is usually negative or expresses impossibility. Neutral register.
〜だけに "Precisely because," where the result follows naturally from the stated reason and is felt all the more strongly. Often carries surprise or heightened emotion; used in speech and writing.
〜だけあって Says a good result matches the reason given: as you'd expect from that status, training or reputation. Used for praise, so avoid it for bad outcomes. Neutral; common in speech and writing.
〜どころか Denies the first idea and gives a far stronger opposite: not just not A, but even B. Carries surprise or complaint. Used in both speech and writing.
〜どころではない Says the situation makes something impossible or inappropriate right now: this is no time for that. Stronger and more emotional than できない. Common in everyday speech.
〜ものの Concedes that something is true, then says the expected result did not follow. Close to けれど but stiffer; mainly written and formal speech.
〜ものだ Three uses: V-ta ものだ for nostalgic habits, V-dict/V-nai ものだ for social common sense (one ought to), and adjective + ものだ for exclamation. Slightly literary but common in speech.
〜ものだから Gives a reason as an excuse or explanation, often for something the speaker regrets. Sounds personal and apologetic; spoken, with もんだから as the casual form.
〜ものなら With a potential verb it sets up a wish that is hard to realize: if only I could. With the volitional it becomes a challenge or warning (if you dare). Used in speech and writing.
〜ことだ Gives strong advice about the best way to reach a goal: the thing to do is. Used by a teacher, doctor or senior to someone below them, so avoid it with superiors.
〜ことか An exclamation of strong emotion, usually with どんなに, どれほど or 何度: how very! Slightly literary and emotional; common in speeches and writing.
〜ことに Puts the speaker's feeling first, before stating the fact: to my surprise, luckily, sadly. Only works with emotion words. Slightly formal, common in written accounts.
〜ことなく Means without ever doing something, describing how an action was carried out. A stiff written equivalent of 〜ないで; used in reports, news and formal speech.
〜ことから Gives the evidence or origin behind a judgment or a name: from the fact that A, B follows. Objective and written; common in news and explanations.
〜ことだから Predicts what someone will do based on their known character: knowing him, he'll surely… Almost always used with a person the speaker and listener both know. Conversational.
〜わけがない States a confident denial based on reasoning: there's no way that could be true. Stronger than はずがない. Used freely in speech; わけない is the casual short form.
〜かねない Warns that a bad outcome is quite possible: it could well end up that way. Only for undesirable results. Common in news, warnings and formal speech.
〜かねる A polite way to say you cannot do something, because it is difficult or against the rules. Very common in business Japanese as 〜かねます, softer than できません.
〜がたい Says something is hard to do because it goes against feeling or judgment, not physical difficulty. Written and formal; limited to verbs like 信じる, 忘れる, 想像する.
〜得る / 〜得ない States that something is theoretically possible or impossible. The dictionary form reads うる or える, but the negative is always えない. Formal and written.
〜っこない A casual, emphatic no way it will happen. Same meaning as 〜はずがない but spoken only, and used with friends or family, never in formal situations.
〜ようがない Says there is no method available, however much you want to act. The problem is a lack of means, not of will. Neutral, used in speech and writing.
〜ざるを得ない Means you must do it even though you don't want to, because circumstances leave no choice. Formal and written; note する becomes せざるを得ない.
〜ずにはいられない Describes a feeling so strong you cannot stop yourself from acting. Spontaneous, not a duty. Somewhat literary; 〜ないではいられない is the softer spoken variant.
〜てたまらない Says a physical sensation or desire is unbearably strong. Used for the speaker's own feelings; for others add ようだ or らしい. Common in casual speech.
〜てならない Says a feeling or impression wells up on its own and won't go away. Used with emotion verbs and adjectives; more literary and formal than 〜てたまらない.
〜てしょうがない A casual way to say a feeling or condition is extreme and hard to bear. Same meaning as 〜てたまらない but more colloquial; 〜てしかたがない is the politer form.
〜のみならず A formal not only A but also B, adding a wider or more surprising second item. Written style, common in essays, news and speeches; 〜だけでなく is the everyday equivalent.
〜ばかりか Not only A but even B, where B goes beyond expectation. Often used for surprising or extreme additions, good or bad. Slightly formal; common in writing.
〜はもちろん Treats A as too obvious to need saying and adds B: not to mention. Neutral in register and very common in speech, ads and writing; 〜はもちろんのこと is a touch more formal.
〜はもとより Same meaning as 〜はもちろん but distinctly formal and written: A goes without saying, and B too. Found in reports, speeches and news rather than casual talk.
〜に限らず Says something is not restricted to A, but applies more widely: not just A, B as well. Slightly formal but common in news, notices and everyday explanation.
〜に限って Marks the one time or person out of all others, usually with ironic bad luck ('of all days'), or with a negative to insist 'not X of all people'. Common in speech and writing.
〜に限る Says that X is the best option — 'nothing beats X'. It states the speaker's personal opinion or advice, and is common in casual conversation.
〜からといって Rejects a conclusion drawn from a reason: 'just because X, it doesn't follow that Y'. The second half is almost always negative. Used in both speech and writing.
〜といっても Corrects the impression a word might give: 'I say X, but actually it's less than you'd imagine'. Neutral register, very common in conversation.
〜にしても Concedes a point and then objects: 'even granting X, still Y'. Often carries mild criticism. Used in both spoken and written Japanese.
〜にしろ / 〜にせよ A stiffer, more formal version of 〜にしても: 'even if / whether X or Y, the point stands'. Common in writing, speeches and formal talk; にせよ is the most literary.
〜はともかく Sets one topic aside as less important in order to focus on another: 'X aside, Y is the point'. Neutral register; はともかくとして is slightly more formal.
〜に関わらず States that the result is unaffected by the condition: 'regardless of X'. Formal and typical of notices, rules and announcements.
〜もかまわず Says someone acts without minding something they normally would care about. Slightly written/descriptive in tone and often implies criticism or surprise.
〜向け / 〜向き向け means made for a stated target group on purpose; 向き means suited to it by nature. Both attach to nouns and are common in product and business descriptions.
〜だらけ Means covered in or full of something, almost always something unpleasant such as mud, dust or mistakes. Attaches directly to a noun; conversational.
〜気味 Adds 'a touch of' or 'slightly' to a state the speaker senses in themselves or others, usually an undesirable one. Neutral, very common in daily conversation.
〜がち Says something tends to happen often, usually an unwanted tendency. Describes a habit or repeated state rather than a single event; neutral register.
〜きる / 〜きれない〜きる means doing something completely, all the way to the end; 〜きれない means being unable to finish or handle it all. Both attach to the verb stem; everyday register.
〜ぬく Means carrying an action through to the end despite difficulty, stressing effort and persistence. Stronger and more emotional than 〜きる; common in writing and speeches.
〜つつある Describes a change that is steadily in progress: 'is gradually becoming'. Formal and typical of news reports and written Japanese rather than casual speech.
〜つつ A written-style 〜ながら: either two simultaneous actions by the same person, or 'even though I know X, I still do Y' (with つつも especially).
〜一方だ Says a situation keeps moving in one direction and nothing stops it, usually a bad one: 'keeps getting more and more'. Slightly formal, common in news and reports.
〜一方で Presents two contrasting sides of the same situation or person: 'on one hand …, on the other …'. Written and formal-leaning; frequent in essays and news.
〜反面 Points out an opposite quality of the same thing: 'X, but on the other side of it, Y'. Used mainly for evaluating merits and demerits; slightly written in tone.
〜に反して Says the result went against an expectation, prediction or rule. Formal and mostly written; the noun before it is usually 予想・期待・予報・命令.
〜に比べて Introduces a standard of comparison: 'compared with X'. Neutral in register and used freely in both conversation and writing; に比べ is the shorter written form.
〜かわりに Means doing one thing instead of another, or giving something in exchange for something else. Everyday register, used in both speech and writing.
〜に代わって Means acting on behalf of someone, or one thing replacing another over time. More formal than 〜のかわりに and common in announcements and written Japanese.
〜のもとで States the conditions, rules or supervision under which something is done: 'under X'. Formal and largely written; のもとに is a close variant.
〜末に Says that after a long process of effort or hesitation, a final result was reached. The outcome may be good or bad. Formal and mostly written.
〜あげく Like 〜末に but the ending is always unwelcome: after all that trouble, a bad result came. Carries the speaker's exasperation; used in speech and writing alike.
〜たところ Reports what was discovered as a result of doing something: 'when I did X, (it turned out that) Y'. The result is factual, not planned. Formal, common in reports and email.
〜か〜ないかのうちに Two events happen almost at the same instant: 'no sooner had X happened than Y'. Describes actual past events, so the second clause is normally past tense.
〜てはじめて Says a realization or ability came only after experiencing something: 'it was only after X that Y'. Often used for lessons learned; neutral to slightly formal.
〜て以来 Marks a starting point in the past: ever since X happened, a state or tendency has continued unbroken. Slightly formal; common in writing and polite speech, and normally followed by an ongoing situation.
〜てからでないと Says the second action is impossible or not permitted until the first one is finished. The main clause is negative or expresses difficulty. Fairly formal; frequent in instructions and business speech.
〜ないうちに Do something while a situation has not yet changed: before it gets dark, before you forget. Neutral register, used freely in everyday spoken and written Japanese.
〜最中に Stresses that something happened right in the middle of an ongoing activity, almost always as an interruption. Neutral but emphatic; common in both conversation and writing.
〜ところに / 〜ところへ Marks the exact moment at which something else happens, often an interruption or a timely arrival. Used in speech and writing; ところへ feels slightly more like movement toward the scene.
〜かと思うと Two events follow each other almost instantly, usually with surprise or against expectation. Used for events you observe, not for your own plans. Natural in both conversation and writing.
〜やいなや The moment one thing happens, the next follows immediately. Stiff, literary phrasing found in news reports and novels rather than in everyday conversation.
〜のに対して Places two things side by side as a contrast: whereas A is one way, B is the other. Slightly formal; very common in reports, essays and explanations.
〜に加えて Adds a second item on top of the first: not only A, but B as well. More formal than 〜だけでなく; frequent in news, business writing and explanations.
〜こそ An emphatic particle that singles out the word before it: this one and no other, precisely this. Attaches to a noun, usually in place of は or を, though こそが and こそは also occur. Used in both speech and writing.
〜からこそ Singles out the one real reason: it is precisely because of A that B. Usually paired with a positive or heartfelt point; natural in both speech and writing.
〜ばかりに Blames one small cause for a bad, regrettable outcome. The result is always negative, and the speaker usually feels regret. Used in conversation and writing alike.
〜せいか Offers a tentative reason for something, usually mildly negative: perhaps because of A, B happened. Softer and less certain than 〜せいで. Everyday register.
〜につき Formal 'due to' in notices and signs, and also 'per' with counters. Stiff written style: you see it on shop signs and official announcements, not in casual talk.
〜ようとする Shows an attempt to do something, or the moment just before an action starts. In the negative (〜ようとしない) it means someone stubbornly refuses. Neutral register.
〜まい / 〜まいか Literary negative: firm resolve ('I will never...') or conjecture ('probably not'). Stiff and old-fashioned, mainly in writing, speeches and set phrases like ではあるまいか.
〜べきではない A strong judgment that something is wrong and must not be done. Heavier and more moral than 〜ないほうがいい; used in advice, rules and opinion writing.
〜ないことには Unless the first thing is done, the second is impossible or cannot be known. The main clause is always negative. Neutral register, common in explanation and discussion.
〜てこそ Only by doing A does B become true — the action is presented as the essential condition. Emphatic and slightly formal, and the result that follows is positive.
〜としたら / 〜とすれば Sets up a hypothesis for discussion: supposing that A is the case, then B. Common in reasoning, planning and questions; neutral to slightly formal.
〜にしたら / 〜にすれば Presents a matter from a particular person's viewpoint, often with sympathy. Used with people, not things; にしてみれば is a common variant. Both spoken and written.
〜ようでは If things stay in this state, a bad outcome will follow. It carries criticism or warning, so it is not aimed at a superior. Used in speech and writing.
〜わりに The result is unexpected given the standard mentioned: good for the price, calm for his age. Neutral and very common in everyday speech and writing.
〜にしては Judges something against the expectation attached to a label or fixed standard: for a beginner, for December. Close to わりに, but the standard is a definite category.
〜としても Even supposing A is true, B still holds. A concessive hypothesis, often paired with たとえ. Neutral register, frequent in argument and discussion.
〜ながらも Concessive 'even though', joining two clauses that clash. More literary than 〜ながら or 〜のに; common in written Japanese and set phrases such as 狭いながらも.
〜つもりで With the intention of doing something, or acting as if a situation were true when it is not. Everyday register, common in advice and when talking about your own mindset.
〜かのようだ Compares a real situation to something it is not: 'as if'. More literary and vivid than 〜ようだ, often used with まるで, especially in descriptive writing.
〜ふりをする To pretend to be or do something that is not actually the case. Everyday spoken Japanese, and usually mildly critical of the pretence.
〜も同然 Says a situation is practically the same as something else, even if not literally so. Mildly emphatic, neutral to colloquial; often appears as も同然の + noun.
〜というものだ States what something essentially is, presenting the speaker's judgment as an obvious truth. Often used for definitions, criticism or life lessons; sounds slightly declarative and written.
〜というものではない Denies that a general idea always holds true: 'it isn't simply the case that...'. Used to soften or correct an over-simple assumption; common in essays and careful speech.
〜ないことはない A double negative meaning 'it's not that I can't / it's possible, though reluctantly'. Gives a cautious, hedged yes; common in polite spoken Japanese.
〜に相違ない Expresses the speaker's firm conviction: 'there is no doubt that'. A formal, written equivalent of 〜に違いない, seen in reports, legal texts and news.
〜ずにすむ Means you end up not having to do something unpleasant. Neutral register; 〜ないですむ is the more casual spoken form.
〜てばかりはいられない Says you can't afford to go on doing only one thing, because something else needs doing. Carries a sense of pulling yourself together; used in speech and writing alike.
〜たものだ Recalls what someone often used to do in the past, with a nostalgic tone. Typically spoken by an older speaker looking back; not for one-off past events.
〜ものがある Says that something has a certain quality the speaker senses strongly: 'there is something ... about it'. Slightly literary; common in reviews and commentary.
〜なりに Means 'in one's own way, within one's own limits'. Acknowledges limited ability or standing while praising the effort; neutral, slightly polite.
〜だけのことはある Says a result is fitting given the effort, training or reputation behind it: 'it lives up to it, no wonder'. Praising tone; often paired with さすが.
〜とは限らない Denies that something is always true: 'not necessarily'. Used to counter a generalization; neutral register, very common in essays and discussion.
〜にほかならない Asserts emphatically that something is precisely this and nothing else. Formal and written; common in editorials, speeches and academic prose.
〜にすぎない Plays something down as merely or no more than that. Slightly formal and often modest or dismissive; frequent in news and written arguments.
〜に決まっている Expresses the speaker's strong certainty: 'it's bound to be, obviously'. Casual and subjective, common in conversation; too blunt for formal writing.
〜上は Means 'now that ... , naturally the following must happen'. Introduces a resolve or obligation that follows from a decided fact; formal and written.
〜ほどのことはない Says a matter isn't serious enough to warrant that action: 'it's not worth doing, no need to go that far'. Reassuring tone; used in speech and writing.
〜までもない Means the action is unnecessary because the matter is obvious or trivial. Slightly formal; 言うまでもない ('needless to say') is a set phrase.
〜ではあるまいし Means 'it's not as if ...', giving a reason to criticize or reassure. Carries a scolding or exasperated tone; spoken, and rather blunt with superiors.
〜と言えば Picks up a word just mentioned and develops it: 'speaking of ...'. Used to introduce a typical association or to change topic naturally; neutral register.
〜というより Rejects one description in favor of a more accurate one: 'rather than ..., it's more like ...'. Neutral and very common in both speech and writing.
〜ものだろうか Voices doubt that something is really so, or, with ない, a wish that it could be. Reflective and slightly literary; common in essays and monologue.
〜に値する Means something has enough value to deserve the action: 'is worth, merits'. Formal and written; typical in reviews, reports and evaluations.
〜てやる Marks doing something for a junior, a child, an animal or a plant; with volitional force it shows defiant determination ('just watch me'). Casual and male-leaning.
〜てみせる Declares firm determination to accomplish something, often to prove it to others; can also mean demonstrating an action. Emphatic and spoken.
〜など / 〜なんて Cites something with contempt, surprise or modesty: 'something like ...'. なんて is the casual spoken form of など; both often precede a negative or emotional comment.
〜なくてはならない States an obligation imposed by rules or circumstances: 'must, have to'. Slightly formal; なくちゃ is the casual contraction, なければならない the written variant.
〜のではないか Offers a guess or opinion indirectly: 'isn't it that ...?'. Softens an assertion; のではないでしょうか is the polite form used in meetings and writing.
〜によっては Means results vary case by case: 'depending on ..., in some cases'. Points to exceptions rather than a general rule; neutral register.
〜と同時に Says two things happen at the same moment, or that someone has two roles at once. Neutral to formal; frequent in reports and news.
〜結果 Introduces the outcome that followed a deliberate action or process: 'as a result of'. Formal and written; common in reports and news.

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