Grammar (JLPT N2)

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  • 〜に際して
    Formal written or ceremonial phrasing meaning "on the occasion of / when doing." Marks a special, one-off moment such as a signing, departure or opening, not a routine event.
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  • 〜に当たって
    Formal "upon / at the time of" for an important undertaking one is about to begin. Used in speeches and business writing; the main clause states what is done in preparation or in that spirit.
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  • 〜に先立って
    Formal written "prior to," used when something is done in advance of a major event as a preliminary step. More restricted than 前に: the following event must be significant.
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  • 〜において / 〜における
    Formal written replacement for で, marking a place, time, or field/domain. Common in reports, notices and academic writing; における modifies a following noun.
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  • 〜にわたって / 〜にわたる
    Formal expression for extent: something continues or spreads over a whole span of time, distance or range. The noun before it must express that span. にわたる modifies a noun.
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  • 〜をめぐって
    "Concerning / surrounding," used for a topic that people argue, debate or compete over. Typical of news and formal writing; the main clause usually involves conflict or discussion.
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  • 〜をはじめ
    Names the most representative member of a group first, implying many others follow. Formal written style, common in reports and announcements.
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  • 〜を通じて / 〜を通して
    Marks a medium or intermediary ("via, through"), or a period during the whole of which something holds. を通して leans slightly more toward active use of the means; both are fairly formal.
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  • 〜を中心に
    "Centering on / mainly," showing what stands at the core of an activity, spread or arrangement. Neutral-to-formal; common in news and business explanations.
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  • 〜を問わず
    "Regardless of," saying that a difference in the named category makes no difference. Formal written style; typical in job ads, notices and rules.
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  • 〜を抜きにして
    "Leaving aside / without," removing something normally expected. With 〜を抜きにしては／抜きでは plus a negative it means "without X, Y would not happen." Neutral to slightly formal.
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  • 〜をこめて
    "Putting (a feeling) into," used with emotion nouns such as 心, 感謝, 愛, 祈り. Slightly literary but common in letters, songs and everyday warm speech.
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  • 〜をもとに
    "Based on," naming the source material used to make something. Softer and broader than に基づいて: the material is raw input, not a rule to obey.
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  • 〜に基づいて
    "Based on / in accordance with," where the noun is a standard, rule, fact or data set that the action conforms to. Formal, common in legal, business and academic contexts.
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  • 〜に応じて
    "Depending on / in response to," where one thing varies flexibly as another varies. Formal; frequent in business and service language.
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  • 〜に沿って
    Literally "along" a line such as a river or road, and figuratively "in line with" a policy, plan or someone's wishes. Fairly formal, common in business.
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  • 〜に伴って
    "Along with / as a result of," for a change or event that brings another change with it. Formal written style, common in news and reports.
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  • 〜につれて
    "As … progresses," for two changes that advance gradually and in proportion. Neutral register, used in both speech and writing; not used for one-off events or intentional actions.
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  • 〜にしたがって
    Two uses: proportional change ("as … does"), like につれて but stiffer, and "in accordance with" instructions, rules or a manual. Formal in both senses.
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  • 〜とともに
    "Together with," "at the same time as," or "as … changes." A formal written alternative to 〜と一緒に that also links two simultaneous states or parallel changes.
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  • 〜次第
    "As soon as," attached to a verb stem. Business and formal speech; the second clause must be future (a report, request or intention) and cannot be in the past tense.
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  • 〜次第だ / 〜次第で
    "Depends on": the outcome is decided by the noun before 次第. 次第だ ends the sentence, 次第で／次第では continues it. Neutral to formal.
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  • 〜上で
    "After doing X, then Y," where X is a deliberate preliminary step whose result shapes Y. Formal, common in business and official notices; not for accidental sequences.
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  • 〜上に
    "On top of that," adding a second point in the same direction — two good things or two bad things, never a mix. Slightly formal but common in everyday explanation.
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  • 〜以上は
    "Now that / since," presenting a fact from which an obligation, determination or judgment naturally follows. Formal; the main clause carries なければならない, べきだ, つもりだ and the like.
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  • 〜からには
    "Now that / if I'm going to," almost the same as 以上は but warmer and more emotional, expressing the speaker's resolve. Used in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜限り
    Marks a limit: "as long as" a condition holds, or "to the full extent of" something. Neutral to formal; found in fixed phrases like できる限り and 見渡す限り.
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  • 〜限りでは
    "As far as I know / from what I saw," limiting a statement to the speaker's own source of information. Attaches to verbs of perceiving or checking; neutral and common in careful speech.
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  • 〜ないかぎり
    "Unless," stating that as long as the condition is not met, the situation will not change. The main clause is usually negative or expresses impossibility. Neutral register.
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  • 〜だけに
    "Precisely because," where the result follows naturally from the stated reason and is felt all the more strongly. Often carries surprise or heightened emotion; used in speech and writing.
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  • 〜だけあって
    Says a good result matches the reason given: as you'd expect from that status, training or reputation. Used for praise, so avoid it for bad outcomes. Neutral; common in speech and writing.
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  • 〜どころか
    Denies the first idea and gives a far stronger opposite: not just not A, but even B. Carries surprise or complaint. Used in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜どころではない
    Says the situation makes something impossible or inappropriate right now: this is no time for that. Stronger and more emotional than できない. Common in everyday speech.
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  • 〜ものの
    Concedes that something is true, then says the expected result did not follow. Close to けれど but stiffer; mainly written and formal speech.
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  • 〜ものだ
    Three uses: V-ta ものだ for nostalgic habits, V-dict/V-nai ものだ for social common sense (one ought to), and adjective + ものだ for exclamation. Slightly literary but common in speech.
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  • 〜ものだから
    Gives a reason as an excuse or explanation, often for something the speaker regrets. Sounds personal and apologetic; spoken, with もんだから as the casual form.
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  • 〜ものなら
    With a potential verb it sets up a wish that is hard to realize: if only I could. With the volitional it becomes a challenge or warning (if you dare). Used in speech and writing.
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  • 〜ことだ
    Gives strong advice about the best way to reach a goal: the thing to do is. Used by a teacher, doctor or senior to someone below them, so avoid it with superiors.
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  • 〜ことか
    An exclamation of strong emotion, usually with どんなに, どれほど or 何度: how very! Slightly literary and emotional; common in speeches and writing.
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  • 〜ことに
    Puts the speaker's feeling first, before stating the fact: to my surprise, luckily, sadly. Only works with emotion words. Slightly formal, common in written accounts.
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  • 〜ことなく
    Means without ever doing something, describing how an action was carried out. A stiff written equivalent of 〜ないで; used in reports, news and formal speech.
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  • 〜ことから
    Gives the evidence or origin behind a judgment or a name: from the fact that A, B follows. Objective and written; common in news and explanations.
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  • 〜ことだから
    Predicts what someone will do based on their known character: knowing him, he'll surely… Almost always used with a person the speaker and listener both know. Conversational.
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  • 〜わけがない
    States a confident denial based on reasoning: there's no way that could be true. Stronger than はずがない. Used freely in speech; わけない is the casual short form.
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  • 〜かねない
    Warns that a bad outcome is quite possible: it could well end up that way. Only for undesirable results. Common in news, warnings and formal speech.
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  • 〜かねる
    A polite way to say you cannot do something, because it is difficult or against the rules. Very common in business Japanese as 〜かねます, softer than できません.
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  • 〜がたい
    Says something is hard to do because it goes against feeling or judgment, not physical difficulty. Written and formal; limited to verbs like 信じる, 忘れる, 想像する.
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  • 〜得る / 〜得ない
    States that something is theoretically possible or impossible. The dictionary form reads うる or える, but the negative is always えない. Formal and written.
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  • 〜っこない
    A casual, emphatic no way it will happen. Same meaning as 〜はずがない but spoken only, and used with friends or family, never in formal situations.
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  • 〜ようがない
    Says there is no method available, however much you want to act. The problem is a lack of means, not of will. Neutral, used in speech and writing.
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  • 〜ざるを得ない
    Means you must do it even though you don't want to, because circumstances leave no choice. Formal and written; note する becomes せざるを得ない.
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  • 〜ずにはいられない
    Describes a feeling so strong you cannot stop yourself from acting. Spontaneous, not a duty. Somewhat literary; 〜ないではいられない is the softer spoken variant.
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  • 〜てたまらない
    Says a physical sensation or desire is unbearably strong. Used for the speaker's own feelings; for others add ようだ or らしい. Common in casual speech.
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  • 〜てならない
    Says a feeling or impression wells up on its own and won't go away. Used with emotion verbs and adjectives; more literary and formal than 〜てたまらない.
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  • 〜てしょうがない
    A casual way to say a feeling or condition is extreme and hard to bear. Same meaning as 〜てたまらない but more colloquial; 〜てしかたがない is the politer form.
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  • 〜のみならず
    A formal not only A but also B, adding a wider or more surprising second item. Written style, common in essays, news and speeches; 〜だけでなく is the everyday equivalent.
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  • 〜ばかりか
    Not only A but even B, where B goes beyond expectation. Often used for surprising or extreme additions, good or bad. Slightly formal; common in writing.
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  • 〜はもちろん
    Treats A as too obvious to need saying and adds B: not to mention. Neutral in register and very common in speech, ads and writing; 〜はもちろんのこと is a touch more formal.
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  • 〜はもとより
    Same meaning as 〜はもちろん but distinctly formal and written: A goes without saying, and B too. Found in reports, speeches and news rather than casual talk.
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  • 〜に限らず
    Says something is not restricted to A, but applies more widely: not just A, B as well. Slightly formal but common in news, notices and everyday explanation.
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  • 〜に限って
    Marks the one time or person out of all others, usually with ironic bad luck ('of all days'), or with a negative to insist 'not X of all people'. Common in speech and writing.
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  • 〜に限る
    Says that X is the best option — 'nothing beats X'. It states the speaker's personal opinion or advice, and is common in casual conversation.
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  • 〜からといって
    Rejects a conclusion drawn from a reason: 'just because X, it doesn't follow that Y'. The second half is almost always negative. Used in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜といっても
    Corrects the impression a word might give: 'I say X, but actually it's less than you'd imagine'. Neutral register, very common in conversation.
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  • 〜にしても
    Concedes a point and then objects: 'even granting X, still Y'. Often carries mild criticism. Used in both spoken and written Japanese.
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  • 〜にしろ / 〜にせよ
    A stiffer, more formal version of 〜にしても: 'even if / whether X or Y, the point stands'. Common in writing, speeches and formal talk; にせよ is the most literary.
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  • 〜はともかく
    Sets one topic aside as less important in order to focus on another: 'X aside, Y is the point'. Neutral register; はともかくとして is slightly more formal.
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  • 〜に関わらず
    States that the result is unaffected by the condition: 'regardless of X'. Formal and typical of notices, rules and announcements.
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  • 〜もかまわず
    Says someone acts without minding something they normally would care about. Slightly written/descriptive in tone and often implies criticism or surprise.
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  • 〜向け / 〜向き
    向け means made for a stated target group on purpose; 向き means suited to it by nature. Both attach to nouns and are common in product and business descriptions.
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  • 〜だらけ
    Means covered in or full of something, almost always something unpleasant such as mud, dust or mistakes. Attaches directly to a noun; conversational.
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  • 〜気味
    Adds 'a touch of' or 'slightly' to a state the speaker senses in themselves or others, usually an undesirable one. Neutral, very common in daily conversation.
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  • 〜がち
    Says something tends to happen often, usually an unwanted tendency. Describes a habit or repeated state rather than a single event; neutral register.
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  • 〜きる / 〜きれない
    〜きる means doing something completely, all the way to the end; 〜きれない means being unable to finish or handle it all. Both attach to the verb stem; everyday register.
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  • 〜ぬく
    Means carrying an action through to the end despite difficulty, stressing effort and persistence. Stronger and more emotional than 〜きる; common in writing and speeches.
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  • 〜つつある
    Describes a change that is steadily in progress: 'is gradually becoming'. Formal and typical of news reports and written Japanese rather than casual speech.
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  • 〜つつ
    A written-style 〜ながら: either two simultaneous actions by the same person, or 'even though I know X, I still do Y' (with つつも especially).
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  • 〜一方だ
    Says a situation keeps moving in one direction and nothing stops it, usually a bad one: 'keeps getting more and more'. Slightly formal, common in news and reports.
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  • 〜一方で
    Presents two contrasting sides of the same situation or person: 'on one hand …, on the other …'. Written and formal-leaning; frequent in essays and news.
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  • 〜反面
    Points out an opposite quality of the same thing: 'X, but on the other side of it, Y'. Used mainly for evaluating merits and demerits; slightly written in tone.
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  • 〜に反して
    Says the result went against an expectation, prediction or rule. Formal and mostly written; the noun before it is usually 予想・期待・予報・命令.
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  • 〜に比べて
    Introduces a standard of comparison: 'compared with X'. Neutral in register and used freely in both conversation and writing; に比べ is the shorter written form.
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  • 〜かわりに
    Means doing one thing instead of another, or giving something in exchange for something else. Everyday register, used in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜に代わって
    Means acting on behalf of someone, or one thing replacing another over time. More formal than 〜のかわりに and common in announcements and written Japanese.
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  • 〜のもとで
    States the conditions, rules or supervision under which something is done: 'under X'. Formal and largely written; のもとに is a close variant.
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  • 〜末に
    Says that after a long process of effort or hesitation, a final result was reached. The outcome may be good or bad. Formal and mostly written.
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  • 〜あげく
    Like 〜末に but the ending is always unwelcome: after all that trouble, a bad result came. Carries the speaker's exasperation; used in speech and writing alike.
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  • 〜たところ
    Reports what was discovered as a result of doing something: 'when I did X, (it turned out that) Y'. The result is factual, not planned. Formal, common in reports and email.
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  • 〜か〜ないかのうちに
    Two events happen almost at the same instant: 'no sooner had X happened than Y'. Describes actual past events, so the second clause is normally past tense.
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  • 〜てはじめて
    Says a realization or ability came only after experiencing something: 'it was only after X that Y'. Often used for lessons learned; neutral to slightly formal.
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  • 〜て以来
    Marks a starting point in the past: ever since X happened, a state or tendency has continued unbroken. Slightly formal; common in writing and polite speech, and normally followed by an ongoing situation.
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  • 〜てからでないと
    Says the second action is impossible or not permitted until the first one is finished. The main clause is negative or expresses difficulty. Fairly formal; frequent in instructions and business speech.
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  • 〜ないうちに
    Do something while a situation has not yet changed: before it gets dark, before you forget. Neutral register, used freely in everyday spoken and written Japanese.
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  • 〜最中に
    Stresses that something happened right in the middle of an ongoing activity, almost always as an interruption. Neutral but emphatic; common in both conversation and writing.
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  • 〜ところに / 〜ところへ
    Marks the exact moment at which something else happens, often an interruption or a timely arrival. Used in speech and writing; ところへ feels slightly more like movement toward the scene.
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  • 〜かと思うと
    Two events follow each other almost instantly, usually with surprise or against expectation. Used for events you observe, not for your own plans. Natural in both conversation and writing.
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  • 〜やいなや
    The moment one thing happens, the next follows immediately. Stiff, literary phrasing found in news reports and novels rather than in everyday conversation.
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  • 〜のに対して
    Places two things side by side as a contrast: whereas A is one way, B is the other. Slightly formal; very common in reports, essays and explanations.
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  • 〜に加えて
    Adds a second item on top of the first: not only A, but B as well. More formal than 〜だけでなく; frequent in news, business writing and explanations.
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  • 〜こそ
    An emphatic particle that singles out the word before it: this one and no other, precisely this. Attaches to a noun, usually in place of は or を, though こそが and こそは also occur. Used in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜からこそ
    Singles out the one real reason: it is precisely because of A that B. Usually paired with a positive or heartfelt point; natural in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜ばかりに
    Blames one small cause for a bad, regrettable outcome. The result is always negative, and the speaker usually feels regret. Used in conversation and writing alike.
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  • 〜せいか
    Offers a tentative reason for something, usually mildly negative: perhaps because of A, B happened. Softer and less certain than 〜せいで. Everyday register.
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  • 〜につき
    Formal 'due to' in notices and signs, and also 'per' with counters. Stiff written style: you see it on shop signs and official announcements, not in casual talk.
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  • 〜ようとする
    Shows an attempt to do something, or the moment just before an action starts. In the negative (〜ようとしない) it means someone stubbornly refuses. Neutral register.
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  • 〜まい / 〜まいか
    Literary negative: firm resolve ('I will never...') or conjecture ('probably not'). Stiff and old-fashioned, mainly in writing, speeches and set phrases like ではあるまいか.
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  • 〜べきではない
    A strong judgment that something is wrong and must not be done. Heavier and more moral than 〜ないほうがいい; used in advice, rules and opinion writing.
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  • 〜ないことには
    Unless the first thing is done, the second is impossible or cannot be known. The main clause is always negative. Neutral register, common in explanation and discussion.
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  • 〜てこそ
    Only by doing A does B become true — the action is presented as the essential condition. Emphatic and slightly formal, and the result that follows is positive.
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  • 〜としたら / 〜とすれば
    Sets up a hypothesis for discussion: supposing that A is the case, then B. Common in reasoning, planning and questions; neutral to slightly formal.
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  • 〜にしたら / 〜にすれば
    Presents a matter from a particular person's viewpoint, often with sympathy. Used with people, not things; にしてみれば is a common variant. Both spoken and written.
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  • 〜ようでは
    If things stay in this state, a bad outcome will follow. It carries criticism or warning, so it is not aimed at a superior. Used in speech and writing.
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  • 〜わりに
    The result is unexpected given the standard mentioned: good for the price, calm for his age. Neutral and very common in everyday speech and writing.
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  • 〜にしては
    Judges something against the expectation attached to a label or fixed standard: for a beginner, for December. Close to わりに, but the standard is a definite category.
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  • 〜としても
    Even supposing A is true, B still holds. A concessive hypothesis, often paired with たとえ. Neutral register, frequent in argument and discussion.
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  • 〜ながらも
    Concessive 'even though', joining two clauses that clash. More literary than 〜ながら or 〜のに; common in written Japanese and set phrases such as 狭いながらも.
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  • 〜つもりで
    With the intention of doing something, or acting as if a situation were true when it is not. Everyday register, common in advice and when talking about your own mindset.
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  • 〜かのようだ
    Compares a real situation to something it is not: 'as if'. More literary and vivid than 〜ようだ, often used with まるで, especially in descriptive writing.
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  • 〜ふりをする
    To pretend to be or do something that is not actually the case. Everyday spoken Japanese, and usually mildly critical of the pretence.
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  • 〜も同然
    Says a situation is practically the same as something else, even if not literally so. Mildly emphatic, neutral to colloquial; often appears as も同然の + noun.
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  • 〜というものだ
    States what something essentially is, presenting the speaker's judgment as an obvious truth. Often used for definitions, criticism or life lessons; sounds slightly declarative and written.
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  • 〜というものではない
    Denies that a general idea always holds true: 'it isn't simply the case that...'. Used to soften or correct an over-simple assumption; common in essays and careful speech.
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  • 〜ないことはない
    A double negative meaning 'it's not that I can't / it's possible, though reluctantly'. Gives a cautious, hedged yes; common in polite spoken Japanese.
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  • 〜に相違ない
    Expresses the speaker's firm conviction: 'there is no doubt that'. A formal, written equivalent of 〜に違いない, seen in reports, legal texts and news.
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  • 〜ずにすむ
    Means you end up not having to do something unpleasant. Neutral register; 〜ないですむ is the more casual spoken form.
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  • 〜てばかりはいられない
    Says you can't afford to go on doing only one thing, because something else needs doing. Carries a sense of pulling yourself together; used in speech and writing alike.
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  • 〜たものだ
    Recalls what someone often used to do in the past, with a nostalgic tone. Typically spoken by an older speaker looking back; not for one-off past events.
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  • 〜ものがある
    Says that something has a certain quality the speaker senses strongly: 'there is something ... about it'. Slightly literary; common in reviews and commentary.
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  • 〜なりに
    Means 'in one's own way, within one's own limits'. Acknowledges limited ability or standing while praising the effort; neutral, slightly polite.
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  • 〜だけのことはある
    Says a result is fitting given the effort, training or reputation behind it: 'it lives up to it, no wonder'. Praising tone; often paired with さすが.
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  • 〜とは限らない
    Denies that something is always true: 'not necessarily'. Used to counter a generalization; neutral register, very common in essays and discussion.
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  • 〜にほかならない
    Asserts emphatically that something is precisely this and nothing else. Formal and written; common in editorials, speeches and academic prose.
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  • 〜にすぎない
    Plays something down as merely or no more than that. Slightly formal and often modest or dismissive; frequent in news and written arguments.
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  • 〜に決まっている
    Expresses the speaker's strong certainty: 'it's bound to be, obviously'. Casual and subjective, common in conversation; too blunt for formal writing.
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  • 〜上は
    Means 'now that ... , naturally the following must happen'. Introduces a resolve or obligation that follows from a decided fact; formal and written.
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  • 〜ほどのことはない
    Says a matter isn't serious enough to warrant that action: 'it's not worth doing, no need to go that far'. Reassuring tone; used in speech and writing.
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  • 〜までもない
    Means the action is unnecessary because the matter is obvious or trivial. Slightly formal; 言うまでもない ('needless to say') is a set phrase.
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  • 〜ではあるまいし
    Means 'it's not as if ...', giving a reason to criticize or reassure. Carries a scolding or exasperated tone; spoken, and rather blunt with superiors.
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  • 〜と言えば
    Picks up a word just mentioned and develops it: 'speaking of ...'. Used to introduce a typical association or to change topic naturally; neutral register.
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  • 〜というより
    Rejects one description in favor of a more accurate one: 'rather than ..., it's more like ...'. Neutral and very common in both speech and writing.
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  • 〜ものだろうか
    Voices doubt that something is really so, or, with ない, a wish that it could be. Reflective and slightly literary; common in essays and monologue.
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  • 〜に値する
    Means something has enough value to deserve the action: 'is worth, merits'. Formal and written; typical in reviews, reports and evaluations.
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  • 〜てやる
    Marks doing something for a junior, a child, an animal or a plant; with volitional force it shows defiant determination ('just watch me'). Casual and male-leaning.
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  • 〜てみせる
    Declares firm determination to accomplish something, often to prove it to others; can also mean demonstrating an action. Emphatic and spoken.
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  • 〜など / 〜なんて
    Cites something with contempt, surprise or modesty: 'something like ...'. なんて is the casual spoken form of など; both often precede a negative or emotional comment.
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  • 〜なくてはならない
    States an obligation imposed by rules or circumstances: 'must, have to'. Slightly formal; なくちゃ is the casual contraction, なければならない the written variant.
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  • 〜のではないか
    Offers a guess or opinion indirectly: 'isn't it that ...?'. Softens an assertion; のではないでしょうか is the polite form used in meetings and writing.
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  • 〜によっては
    Means results vary case by case: 'depending on ..., in some cases'. Points to exceptions rather than a general rule; neutral register.
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  • 〜と同時に
    Says two things happen at the same moment, or that someone has two roles at once. Neutral to formal; frequent in reports and news.
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  • 〜結果
    Introduces the outcome that followed a deliberate action or process: 'as a result of'. Formal and written; common in reports and news.
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